The Hebrew Bible survives through several ancient witnesses. Comparing them — the Masoretic Text, the Greek Septuagint, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Aramaic and Syriac versions — is the heart of Old Testament textual criticism.

Masoretic Text

The standard Hebrew text, its history, and the great codices (Aleppo and Leningrad).

Septuagint

The Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures: texts, translations, studies, and its use in the New Testament.

Dead Sea Scrolls

The Qumran manuscripts, digital libraries, and English translations.

Samaritan Pentateuch, Targums & Peshitta

Ancient witnesses outside the Masoretic tradition.

Jewish Sources & Context

Rabbinic literature, Second Temple writings and manuscript collections.